Free-for-all

The medieval era lasts about 1,000 years. During this period, there are 1,200 separate battles, involving people in every region of Europe and Asia. The pace of warfare starts slowly, then gradually picks up steam.

By the 1500s, the wars are overlapping. Norsemen are still pushing south, while Turks and Russians threaten from the East. Meanwhile, the English, French and Germans are busy fighting it out in the middle.

There are two series of conflicts that stand out, having endured the longest. The first includes the many expeditions from Christian Europe against the Muslims in the Middle East. Together, these are called the Crusades.

The other enduring conflict is the so-called 'Hundred Years War' between the English and the French, for control of what will become France. Once they get started, it seems, they just can't stop.


	Battlefield Europe The Old World is a festering mess of conflicting ethnic groups, without permanent armies. Instead, kings and noblemen form temporary alliances, and raise private armies to achieve their purposes. Some are driven by the desire to exercise control over expanded territory, which will increase the tax base and support lavish spending habits. But many others are just caught up in personal conflicts fueled by ambition. When a king dies, a young successor often feels compelled to prove his manhood by gallant conquest.



	The Dark Ages This map shows battles fought during the early years of the so-called Dark Ages, after the fall of Rome. The pace of conflict is accelerating, as early Viking raids turn into protracted wars. Fighting is also concentrated around the strategic stronghold of Constantinople, which is called Byzantium at this time. It has become the great new capital of the aging Roman Empire, after Rome has to be abandoned. Historians later rename this the Byzantine Empire, to emphasize that its capital is no longer Rome, but Byzantium. The Byzantines are in nearly continuous conflict with the Bulgarians to the north, and the Muslims to the south. As the center of the aging Empire, Constantinople is still the largest and most prosperous city in Europe, by far.


	Constantinople Under Pressure As rivalries in northern Europe continue, the pressure on Constantinople increases. To the north, the Bulgarians remain a problem. But the Muslims to the south are becoming a much greater threat. When the Muslims take control of Jerusalem, the Pope calls on all of Christendom to mount a campaign to regain control of the so-called Holy Land, which is modern Israel. Prominent European kings respond to the call, launching a rescue mission which turns out to be the first of a number of 'Crusades,' whose purpose is to expel Muslims from the Middle East. The overextended Crusaders somehow manage to take Jerusalem by siege, but Muslims quickly retake the city, and never lose control again.


	Crusades and Mongols The next 20 years are dominated, at first, by the periodic Crusades launched to regain control of the Middle East. There are eight separate major Crusades, each individually inspired and funded. Unlike the First Crusade, however, which actually succeeds in taking Jerusalem, none of the others achieve anything of lasting importance. The much bigger event of the period is the great Mongol invasion, which gets everyone's attention. In the meantime, the dwindling Roman Empire at Constantinople is under constant pressure. After turning back the Crusaders, Middle-Eastern Muslims are gaining strength and territory, with the help of newly aggressive Turks from the East.


	Expanding Conflict During the final 200 years of the medieval era, warfare engulfs most of Europe. The English and French are engrossed in a loosely linked series of battles that come to be known as the Hundred Years War, which is something of a record. This is followed quickly by a 32-year civil war in England. There is a 13 Years War in Poland, an 11-year Austrian-Hungarian War, and the first of many wars between Russia and Sweden. The cost of raising, equipping and supplying these armies in the field is generally ruinous, but gives rise to the first great banking interests. These are dominant merchant families, mostly located in the big Italian port cities, which have grown fat outfitting and transporting Crusaders to the Middle East.


	Ready for Columbus This map summarizes warfare during the entire medieval era, from 700 to 1500, showing battles in virtually every region. What sometimes begin as boundary disputes often escalate into a generalized battle for economic supremacy. As it becomes increasingly apparent that wealth is directly tied to shipping and trade, everyone wants a piece of the action. In the end, this struggle for dominance spreads to the entire globe, as ocean-going vessels became capable of reaching distant ports. This is the chaotic world that Christopher Columbus is born into. He begins his career sailing for wealthy Italian shipping families, first voyaging north to the British Isles, then south to the coast of Africa. In the process, he gains experience and confidence.